Where U.S. Forests are Located

Free Will Moral Responsibility - 1167 Words

Free will is the ability of a representative to make individual choices and/or act upon them in their own desired way. People make choices every day in their lives, maybe with a little incentive here and there, yet in the end, it’s the people’s choice. Free will has been a commonly debated subject throughout history. Not just if it’s true, but ultimately the real meaning of it. How can we not believe in free will? Humans naturally have a strong sense of freedom. Free will is true in species and there will never be an alternate. I believe people are responsible for their actions. Most philosophers assert that the concept of free will is closely related to moral responsibility. Responsibility is â€Å"the state or fact of being accountable or to blame for something.† When a person attempts to perform an action and fails to do so, people assume there is a common response. Blame and praise is a frequently used combination in such events. For example, one may b e praised for saving a child from a house that erupted in flames, yet one may be blamed for not using their phone to call for help. Free will becomes an important issue in the debate on whether one is responsible for their actions, and if they are, to what degree. There are always external constraints on the options presented to a person, these outside factors are not the person’s responsibility. (Stanford 1) A common challenge to free will is determinism. â€Å"Determinism is the philosophical position that for every event,Show MoreRelatedFree Will and Moral Responsibility1037 Words   |  4 Pagesbeginnings, the problem of free will has been connected with the question of moral responsibility. Most of the ancient philosophers on the problem were trying to show that humans have sufficient control over their decisions, that all actions depend on them, and that they are not pre-determined by logical necessity, arbitrary gods, fate, or even by natural determinism. The proble m of free will is often described as a question of reconciling free will with determinism. The problems of free will are also rootedRead MoreFree Will : Moral Responsibility1168 Words   |  5 Pages15 Free will is the ability of a representative to make individual choices and/or act upon them in their own desired way. People make choices every day in their lives, maybe with a little incentive here and there, yet in the end, it’s the people’s choice. Free will has been a commonly debated subject throughout history. Not just if it’s true, but ultimately the real meaning of it. How can we not believe in free will? Humans naturally have a strong sense of freedom. Free will is true in species andRead MoreFree Will And Moral Responsibility Essay2171 Words   |  9 PagesThe concept of free will is a source of constant debate and has been a major focus of philosophic and religious discourse for more than two millennia; the concepts of determinism and free will are among the oldest known philosophies. In the modern age, compatibilists like Laura Ekstrom have argued that the possibility to have chosen a different action — even if the action itself is predetermi ned — renders moral responsibility possible in a wholly determined universe (Ekstrom). Conversely, incompatibilistsRead MoreThe Moral Responsibility Of Free Will Essay2084 Words   |  9 Pagesthat free will is seen as hugely important to western philosophy. In particular, it has been suggested that it’s absence may have ramifications for the existence of moral responsibility, henceforth ‘MR’. I will be arguing that ultimate responsibility is the only sufficient condition forMR and that Baker’s reflective endorsement argument fails to encapsulate all scenarios in which we have MR. In addition, I will argue that belief in moral responsibility isn’t necessary to treat people as moral beingsRead MoreFree Will : The Concept Of Moral Responsibility1275 Words   |  6 PagesPart One, The Thesis: Free-will can be defined as the ability an individual has to act without the limitation of necessity or fate. It the power a person has to act at one’s discretion. Do we really have the freedom to experience what we want, when we choose? Some would say yes while some others will say no, philosophers have argued about this topic and there hasn’t been any particular conclusion yet. It is the ability a person or animal has to choose his or her course of actions. Although most philosophersRead MoreHume s Theory Of Free Will And Moral Responsibility1940 Words   |  8 Pages ¶1)? Would possessing it suffice for us to have free will? David Hume was a Scottish philosopher who was largely active in the eighteenth century. While Hume is largely remembered as being part of the empiricist movement that comprised of John Locke and George Berkeley, which largely focussed on the belief that knowledge came from our sensory experiences; this essay will focus on Hume’s work regarding the concept of free will and moral responsibility. It will do this by introducing Hume’s compatibilismRead MoreSaving Morality: The Implications of Hard Determinism 1116 Words   |  5 Pageslibertarian free will, results in some serious consequences for moral responsibility. At its most extreme interpretation a form of moral nihilism arises. †Without God ... everything is permitted now.†[1] That is, if determinism holds true, then there is no free choice, and without free choice there can be no moral responsibility. By taking hard determinism to its logical conclusion, and evaluating the results of a steadfast adherence to the theory this paper serves to show that moral nihilism isRead MoreFree Will And Determinism Can Go Together1447 Words   |  6 PagesFree will is one of the great debates among humans. What is it and do we even have it are two common questions. Freedom is not always easy to define but there is one compelling version of free will. I believe that humans are not truly free, they have free will but much of their lives are determined by other external causes because of the dual nature of decisions. First I will argue what the theory of compatibilist is and why it is the most reasonable. Then I will look at the moral responsibilityRead MoreWhat Would It Entail?1221 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction: Imagine a world without moral responsibility. What would it entail? Without moral responsibility, legal systems today would necessarily undergo a dramatic revision. I have not a clue what they might result to. With constituents not being morally responsible for their actions, criminal acts become easily defensible. For the subject, he/she was not â€Å"free† at the time of the act, for one can only be morally responsible for an act if one was free and consciously willed the act ( ). RapeRead MoreSartre View on Free Will Essay868 Words   |  4 Pagesview on free will when he says, either man is wholly determined or else man is wholly free. This quote shows us that Sartre believes that man is free to do what he wants. For Sartre, freedom is the most basic value, which renders possible all other values the way our fundamental plan precedes and grounds our small choices. In that sense freedom is the source of all values. It is not logically possible to make sense of human responsibility and notions of justice without a conception of free will .

VIOLENT PROGRAMS ON TELEVISION LEAD TO AGGRESSIVE Essay Example For Students

VIOLENT PROGRAMS ON TELEVISION LEAD TO AGGRESSIVE Essay BEHAVIOR BY CHILDRENSince 1982, the National Institute of Mental Health, along with other reputable health organizations has collected data that connects media violence, with violent acts.Conclusions deduced from this data prove that violent programs on television lead to aggressive behavior by children and teenagers who watch those programs. Television violence affects young people of all ages, all socio-economic levels, and all levels of intelligence. Todays children view vast amounts of violence on television. A steady diet of death, killings, torture, and other grotesque acts may be viewed on any day by vulnerable youth. When children are young, they are impressionable to all their surroundings, and especially vulnerable to what they see. Scientific research validates this fact. In studies by the National Institute of Mental Health, educators have learned that children who watch violence often act out this violence. Parents today have a responsibility to ensure their children are supervised when watching violent programs if they are allowed to watch these programs at all. When parents are in the room with children, parents should point out to children that television is not real. Children tend to see television as real life, and lack the maturity to differentiate the difference between news and fiction programs on television. Studies by George Gerbner, Ph.D., at the University of Pennsylvania, have shown that childrens television shows contain about twenty violent acts each hour and that children who watch a lot of television are more likely to think that the world is a mean and dangerous place. Society sees many tragic examples of research findings on youth and television violence. One such example occurred in Allentown, Pennsylvania in 1999. At the time, Justin Douglas was a cute, intelligent five-year-old little boy with loving parents and a safe; middle class home. One day, Justin watched his favorite cartoon heroes; Beavis and Butt-head, on MTV perform one of their famous arson stunts. The cartoon program, created for a mature audience, often contains foul language, drinking, comments about setting fires, smoking, and portrays stealing as acceptable. Justin tried the same stunt he had watched. The real life result was not a cartoon. His home was set on fire and his younger sister lost her life when she could not be rescued from the smoke. From the beginning of the wide use of mass media, from films to radio to television, and now with internet media, researchers have tried to explain the correlation between media and violence. This association has been easy to support and is substantiated in every major scientific report released in the last twenty years. It has become general knowledge to professional counselors and educators that excessive and unsupervised exposure to television violence increases the use of violence to resolve conflict, while it desensitizes these youth to acts of violence. This exposure to violence in the med ia makes viewers less critical of real life violence. Since the media often represents violence as happy violence devoid of pain, suffering, and consequences, they are not providing the audience with an accurate or realistic portrayal of violence. Many studies have also confirmed a cumulative effect of exposure to violence as researchers have traced patterns from childhood exposure to adult social behavior. The National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence was in charge of investigating these issues and making recommendations to the President. The medias task force report was titled, Violence and the Media. Conclusions drawn from this report show that real violence was caused in part by the desire of action groups for media attention; and that violence in society could be reduced if the news gave groups the ability to enhance their communication. A particular focus of the study was the medias portrayal of violence and the publics personal experiences. Television is th e primary source of media for most American citizens, and therefore television violence is the primary source for viewing violence in both adults and children. This report gave evidence of the medias ability to socialize the viewers to the norms and values of the culture. Previously the ability of television to do so had been disputed that the media was seen only as a re-enforcer and not a creator. .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd , .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .postImageUrl , .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd , .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd:hover , .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd:visited , .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd:active { border:0!important; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd:active , .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u89341acc15ecb21dc3046182b42c49bd:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Racial Profiling Essay Research performed by Albert Bandura concluded there were strong short-term effects of exposure to violence in the media that affects children. In his studies, children watched models perform aggressive acts against a doll. These acts of aggression were presented under three circumstances: 1. the children saw the model rewarded for aggressive behavior, 2. the children saw the model receive no consequences for their aggressive behavior, and 3. the children saw the model punished. All three groups were able to imitate the aggressive behavior that contradicts early notions that the influences of violence were not negative if the violence was not glorified. The Help or Hurt study done by Robert Liebert and Robert Baron, further displays the short-term effects of exposure to violence. The research design used experimental and control groups to determine the effect that the observation of violence would have on the subjects social behavior. The experimental group, which was exposed to the violence, was shown to push the red button, which was believed to hurt another childs chances of receiving a prize. More often and for a significantly longer period than the children were shown an exciting non-violent film. The conclusion was that the exposure to violence is related to the acceptance of aggression. All of these studies lead to one thing, the fact that violence affects children and adults. Before the average American child leaves elementary school, researchers estimate that he or she will have witnessed more than 8,000 murders on television. This steady diet of imaginary violence makes America the world leader in real crime and violence. It is time for parents and the American public to take notice of the scientific evidence that proves the correlation between violence seen on television and violence acting out in our society. To ignore these studies continues the growing culture of violence in our country. As Texan writer Molly Ivans says, the first rule of a hole is, if you are in one, stop digging.

Of The Many Types Of Entertainment And Past Times We Have Today, Theat

Of the many types of entertainment and past times we have today, theatre is still one of the most loved. For this we have to thank the very earliest forms of ancient Greek and Roman theatre. These ancient time plays were staged often in honor of a god and have paved the way for theatre as we know today. A particular aspect that has had a remarkable effect on the way theatre has evolved is the architecture of ancient theatres. The architecture of ancient Greek and Roman theatres have had a remarkable effect on future theatre designs including the architecture of the great Elizabethan theatres. The Elizabethan time period in England was ever so popular and well accepted that specialised theatres were having to be built to cope with the large audiences. Before this plays were being held in grape cellars and old farm houses, and so were not able to provide a large enough venue or provide the larger than life atmosphere play houses needed. By the time Elizabethan theatre was in the British mainstream the plays were being held in two types of theatre, the public and private. The public Elizabethan theatres were much larger than the private ones and were the preferred theatre of Shakespeare and other great playwrites to stage a production. The first such theatre was built by James Burbage in 1576 and was called simply the theatre. Soon after other public theatres were built, including Shakespeare's own The Globe which was built in 1599. They could appear round, square or many sided and where built surrounding a central courtyard. Performances were only during daylight because there was no artificial lighting, even though many plays had night scenes. In most theatres it consisted of three levels of viewing galleries and stood about 10 metres high. As well as being viewer platforms the part of the upper two galleries that went behind the stage were used as a balcony to give the play vertical action as well as horizontal. The courtyard, called the pit, measured about 17 metres in diameter. Those wishing to watch the show from the pit could do so for a minimal amount of money. People viewing a play in the pit surrounded the stage from three sides, thus giving the audience a sense of being right in the action. For those that were willing to pay a bit more there were the galleries with seats. But although these galleries provided a seat to sit on they also stank of urine and sweat since there were no toilets and people those days didn't bath much. These rather large theatres could hold as much as 5600 people and were generally the choice of theatre for poorer people, but built around an attractive courtyard with an open roof these theatres were far from something shabby intended for lower class citizens. Proof that the public theatre was not a cheap alternative for poorer people is the fact that Shakespeare and other well known play writers wrote almost all their plays specifically for the public theatres and often despised performing a play in the smaller rich persons private theatre. The Private Elizabethan theatres charged higher admission prices and were designed to attract upper class citizens. Although these theatres were often owned by royalty and attracted rather rich people to view plays they quickly went out of fashion and eventually ceased to excist because Shakespeare wrote all his plays for public theatres. Because of the unpopularity of these theatres not much is known about their architecture except that they were small, had little equipment or basic machinery to assist behind the scenes work and had artificial lighting in the form of petrol lanterns. In typical Ancient Greek tradition, where grander and bigger was better the architecture of ancient Greek theatres truly were traditional, in that they were huge and grand. During the time that drama competitions were beginning to take place in ancient Greece large ampitheatres were needed to be built in order to keep up with the massive popularity of such drama competitions. Three major theatres were constructed, notably the theatre at Delphi, the Attic Theatre and the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens. The Theatre of Dionysus, built at the foot of the Acropolis in Athens, could seat 17,000 people and during their heyday, the competitions drew as many as 30,000 spectators. It was common for these large audiences to be noisy, lively, emotional and unrestrained. They hissed, applauded, cheered and sometimes broke out into a riot if they were unhappy with a

Senior Citizen Essay Essay Example

Senior Citizen Essay Essay Example Senior Citizen Essay Essay Senior Citizen Essay Essay Essay Topic: Senior Ageing is a concern for all. Our sensitiveness to the issue is merely heightened when we reach what we normally refer to as the â€Å"ripe old age. † By so. sing. hands-on footing. the basicss of being and turning old. Possibly upon contemplation. really glean on the sightlessness and without the cognition of parents and grandparents who became senior citizens manner before our coevals. Several states. whether developed or developing. are get downing to see ageing from a really different position the current constructs. The possible to populate healthier for longer old ages has raised outlooks about people’s life styles beyond 60’s and what may be possible. Peoples are oppugning and reexamining their attitudes to instruction. work. their community. personal life agreement. wellness and fittingness. relationships and religious demands. Rapid population ageing and urbanisation will be accompanied by increased demands and demands from mainstreaming older individuals in the society. income security. appropriate health care. lodging and other societal services. All these have to be addressed by older individuals themselves. their households. their communities. by concerned members of civil society and by local and national authorities. Measures have to be undertaken by all stakeholders now to get by with the climb challenges posed by the population ageing phenomenon. Republic Act 7432 â€Å"An Act to Maximize the Contributions of Senior Citizens to Nation Building. Grant Benefits and Privileges and for other Purposes. † Approved April 23. 1992. amended by Republic Act 9257 â€Å"The Expanded Senior Citizens Act of 2003† approved February 26. 2004. and farther amended Republic Act 9994 â€Å"An Act allowing extra Benefits and Privileges to Senior Citizen. further amending Republic Act 7432. as Amended. Otherwise Known as an ‘Act to Maximize the Contributions of Senior Citizens to Nation Building. Grants Benefits and Special Privilege and for Other Purposes’† approved February 15. 2010 expanded the benefits a nd privileges afforded to the senior citizens of this state. Some of the benefits are: giving 20 % price reduction on medical and dental services. educational aid on the chase of station secondary. third. station third and vocational or proficient instruction in both public and private schools. and. to the extent possible. the grant of particular price reductions in particular plans on purchase of basic trade goods all in conformity with guidelines. PAKI SIMPLIFY DAW gt ; BAWASAN UNG MGA R. A. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:The primary purpose of this survey is to show the life status of the senior citizens on the side of their immediate household member. Secondary is to reply the undermentioned inquiries: What is the demographic profile of the respondents in footings of: AgeSexual activityHighest educational attainmentPosition in the old employmentNo. of siblings and immediate household members populating with them How senior citizen’s behavior/attitude affects in the relationship with their immediate household members? What jobs encountered by the senior citizens when their relationship with their immediate household member is concern? What are the possible solutions to turn to jobs encountered? Hypothesis There is no important consequence of the relationship of senior citizens with their immediate household member of the household to their life status. Significance OF THE STUDYThis survey will supply us information about the living status of Senior Citizens in Barangay 150. in Caloocan City. Its important will be showing as the statement follows: BARANGAY-As the research workers conducted the study method. they have found out the top job of Senior Citizens in Barangay 150. in Caloocan City. As the consequence. Barangay would supply the integrating of plan in order to give benefits to the Senior Citizens. SCHOOL- University of Caloocan City is besides a public retainer. This survey would inform pupils particularly to those who have Senior Citizens in their household about their life status. FAMILY-Philippines is a family-oriented state. Conflict within the immediate household members of Senior Citizens genuinely affects their attitude/behavior and besides their life status. This is to supply each household the consciousness to the populating status of Senior Citizens whenever they holding struggle with them.

Biography of Idi Amin, Brutal Dictator of Uganda

Biography of Idi Amin, Brutal Dictator of Uganda Idi Amin (c. 1923–August 16, 2003), who became known as the Butcher of Uganda for his brutal, despotic rule as the President of Uganda in the 1970s, is perhaps the most notorious of Africas post-independence dictators. Amin seized power in a military coup in 1971, ruled over Uganda for eight years, and imprisoned or killed at least 100,000 of his opponents. He was ousted in 1979 by Ugandan nationalists, after which he went into exile. Fast Facts: Idi Amin Known For: Amin was a dictator who served as the president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979.Also Known As: Idi Amin Dada Oumee, The Butcher of UgandaBorn: c. 1923 in Koboko, UgandaParents: Andreas Nyabire and Assa AatteDied: August 16, 2003 in Jeddah, Saudi ArabiaSpouse(s): Malyamu, Kay, Nora, Madina, Sarah KyolabaChildren: Unknown (estimates range from 32 to 54) Early Life Idi Amin Dada Oumee was born around 1923 near Koboko, in the West Nile Province of what is now the Republic of Uganda. Deserted by his father at an early age, he was brought up by his mother, an herbalist and diviner. Amin was a member of the Kakwa ethnic group, a small Islamic tribe that had settled in the region. Success in the Kings African Rifles Amin received little formal education. In 1946, he joined Britains colonial African troops known as the Kings African Rifles (KAR) and served in Burma, Somalia, Kenya (during the British suppression of the Mau Mau), and Uganda. Although he was considered a skilled soldier, Amin developed a reputation for cruelty and was almost cashiered on several occasions for excessive brutality during interrogations. Nevertheless, he rose through the ranks, reaching sergeant major before finally being made an effendi, the highest rank possible for a black African serving in the British army. Amin was also an accomplished athlete, holding Ugandas light heavyweight boxing championship title from 1951 to 1960. A Violent Start As Uganda approached independence, Amins close colleague  Apollo Milton Obote, the leader of the Uganda Peoples Congress (UPC), was made chief minister and then prime minister. Obote had Amin, one of only two high-ranking Africans in the KAR, appointed as first lieutenant of the Ugandan Army. Sent north to quell cattle stealing, Amin perpetrated such atrocities that the British government demanded he be prosecuted. Instead, Obote arranged for him to receive further military training in the U.K. Soldier for the State On his return to Uganda in 1964, Amin was promoted to major and given the task of dealing with an army in mutiny. His success led to a further promotion to colonel. In 1965, Obote and Amin were implicated in a deal to smuggle gold, coffee, and ivory out of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. A parliamentary investigation demanded by President Edward Mutebi Mutesa II put Obote on the defensive. Obote promoted Amin to general and made him chief-of-staff, had five ministers arrested, suspended the 1962 constitution, and declared himself president. Mutesa was forced into exile in 1966 after government forces, under the command of Amin, stormed the royal palace. Coup dEtat Idi Amin began to strengthen his position within the Army using the funds obtained from smuggling and from supplying arms to rebels in southern Sudan. He also developed ties with British and Israeli agents in the country. President Obote first responded by putting Amin under house arrest. When this failed to work, Amin was sidelined to a non-executive position in the Army. On January 25, 1971, while Obote was attending a meeting in Singapore, Amin led a coup detat, taking control of the country and declaring himself president. Popular history recalls Amins declared title to be His Excellency President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin, VC, DSO, MC, Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Sea, and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular. Amin was initially welcomed both within Uganda and by the international community. President Mutesa- fondly known as King Freddie- had died in exile in 1969, and one of Amins earliest acts was to have the body returned to Uganda for a state burial. Political prisoners (many of whom were Amin followers) were freed and the Ugandan Secret Police was disbanded. At the same time, however, Amin formed killer squads to hunt down Obotes supporters. Ethnic Purging Obote  took refuge in Tanzania, from where, in 1972, he attempted unsuccessfully to regain the country through a military coup. Obote supporters within the Ugandan Army, predominantly from the Acholi and Lango ethnic groups, were also involved in the coup. Amin responded by bombing Tanzanian  towns  and purging the Army of Acholi and Lango officers. The ethnic violence grew to include the whole of the Army, and then Ugandan civilians, as Amin became increasingly paranoid. The Nile Mansions Hotel in Kampala became infamous as Amins interrogation and torture center, and Amin is said to have moved residences regularly to avoid assassination attempts. His killer squads, under the official titles of State Research Bureau and Public Safety  Unit,  were responsible for tens of thousands of abductions and murders. Amin personally ordered the execution of the Anglican Archbishop of Uganda, the chancellor of Makerere College, the governor of the Bank of Uganda, and several of his own parliamentary ministers. Economic War In 1972, Amin declared economic war on Ugandas Asian population, a group that dominated Ugandas trade and manufacturing sectors as well as a significant portion of the civil service. Seventy thousand Asian holders of British passports were given three months to leave the country, and the abandoned businesses were handed over to Amins supporters. Amin severed diplomatic ties with Britain and nationalized 85 British-owned businesses. He also expelled Israeli military advisors, turning instead to Colonel Muammar Muhammad al-Gadhafi of Libya and the Soviet Union for support. Leadership Amin was considered by many to be a gregarious, charismatic leader, and he was often portrayed by the international press as a popular figure. In 1975, he was elected chair of the Organisation of African Unity (though  Julius Kambarage Nyerere, president of Tanzania, Kenneth David  Kaunda,  president of Zambia, and  Seretse Khama, president of Botswana, boycotted the meeting). A  United Nations  condemnation was blocked by African heads of state. Hypomania Popular legend claims that Amin was involved in blood rituals and cannibalism. More authoritative sources suggest he may have suffered from hypomania, a form of manic depression characterized by irrational behavior and emotional outbursts. As his paranoia became more pronounced, Amin imported troops from Sudan and Zaire. Eventually, less than 25 percent of the Army was Ugandan. Support for his regime faltered as accounts of Amins atrocities reached the international press. The Ugandan economy suffered, with inflation eclipsing 1,000%. Exile In October 1978, with the assistance of Libyan troops, Amin attempted to annex Kagera, the northern province of Tanzania (which shares a border with Uganda). Tanzanian president  Julius Nyerere responded by sending troops into Uganda, and with the aid of rebel Ugandan forces they were able to capture the Ugandan capital of Kampala. Amin fled to Libya, where he stayed for almost 10 years before finally relocating to Saudi Arabia. He remained there in exile for the remainder of his life. Death On August 16, 2003, Amin died in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The cause of death was reported as multiple organ failure. Although the Ugandan government announced that his body could be buried in Uganda, he was quickly buried in Saudi Arabia. Amin was never tried for his gross abuse of  human rights. Legacy Amins brutal reign has been the subject of numerous books, documentaries, and dramatic films, including Ghosts of Kampala, The Last King of Scotland, and General Idi Amin Dada: A Self Portrait. Often depicted in his time as an eccentric buffoon with delusions of grandeur, Amin is now considered one of historys cruelest dictators. Historians believe his regime was responsible for at least 100,000 deaths and possibly many more. Sources â€Å"Idi Amin, a Brutal Dictator Of Uganda, Is Dead at 80.† The New York Times, 16 Aug. 2003.Wall, Kim. â€Å"Ghost Stories: Idi Amins Torture Chambers.† IWMF, 27 Dec. 2016.

Governments Intervention In Markets For Food Essay

Governments Intervention In Markets For Food - Essay Example One of the major reasons why governments should continue to intervene in the healthcare market is that it can be beneficial economically to provide such services at a reduced rate. Providing good, low-price healthcare means that this service is available to the majority of the population (Gold et al, 1996). This will have the result of providing more healthy workers who will be able to continue to contribute to the economy for years (or decades) longer than their unhealthy counterparts (Briggs et al, 2011). A useful way of looking at the ability of people to contribute to the economy is to use the Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY), which gives a measure of the total number of years lost to ill-health or early death (Briggs et al, 2011). In the United States, it is suggested that 12,844 years are lost per 100,000 people, whereas in the UK it is only 11, 012. In Sweden, a country in which the government intervenes heavily in healthcare economics, the rate is only 9,564, which has th e potential to benefit the economy greatly (Wang et al, 2011). It should also be noted that many countries in which the government intervenes in healthcare market are considered first world countries. In these countries, the majority of individuals do not have to struggle to buy food as a basic necessity(Zweifelt al, 2009). It is perhaps the very omnipresence of food in these countries and the fact that it is so necessary to life that keeps the prices low and removes the need for a government to intervene so directly in its price and purchasing. Equality is also important here, as the majority of people have roughly equal access to food, but healthcare requires a leveling of the playing field (Donaldson & Gerard, 2005). Additionally, many of the families within these countries who do struggle to pay for food do receive government compensation intended to help make food more available to them; for those that need it, however few, there is market intervention.

Quality and Service Improvements Lead to Enhanced Company Revenues and Essay

Quality and Service Improvements Lead to Enhanced Company Revenues and Higher Margins - Essay Example Do quality and service improvements related efforts add cost to the production operations, or does it cut down wastage, improve product appeal and thus generate greater revenues Disjointed quality related efforts add expenses and do not contribute extra profits to the bottom line. Where as sincere efforts with active participation of all layers of an enterprise can rejuvenate and reinvigorate the entire organization and provide commendable competitive advantage. Having said all this we need to know what exactly quality is as identification of quality would result in its improvement and thus increase revenues. Literally quality originates from the Latin word 'qualis' which can be translated as 'such as the thing really is'. Quality has various meanings and each has a depth within itself. Before starting of with how quality and service results in enhanced profits we will identify what actually quality is and how various gurus have identified quality as. Quality itself has been defined as the ongoing process of building and sustaining relationships by assessing, anticipating, and fulfilling stated and implied needs.' (Winder, Richard E. and Judd, Daniel K., 1996, organizational orienteering: Linking Deming, Covey, and Senge in an Integrated Five Dimension Quality Model). Quality is all about conformance to requirements or fitness for use which can be defined through five principal approaches: (1) Transcendent quality is an ideal, a condition of excellence. (2) Product-based quality is based on a product attribute. (3) User-based quality is fitness for use. (4) Manufacturing-based quality is conformance to requirements. (5) Value-based quality is the degree of excellence at an acceptable price. Also, quality has two major components: (1) quality of conformance-quality is defined by the absence of defects, and (2) quality of design-quality is measured by the degree of customer satisfaction with a product's characteristics and features. (http://scrc.ncsu.edu/public/d efinitions.html). Quality management enhances an organization's profits and gets them greater margins. The importance of quality can be seen by the fact that we as customers never want to associate our selves with a bad quality product. That can be with respect to: Performance Features Reliability Durability Conformance Serviceability Responsiveness Competence communication Credibility Access security Aesthetics Perceived quality This not only results in you never availing that service or product but spreading the word around to others you concerned with. This obviously affects the sales of the product or service causing problems for the organization. Goodman et al. (2000), based on a range of studies carried out by TARP (Technical Assistance Research Programs), states: Quality and service improvements can be directly and logically linked to enhanced revenue within one's own company; and secondly, higher quality allows companies to obtain higher margins. These arguments were proven by various surveys which resulted in the following conclusions which prove the relation of quality and service improvements to the revenues and profits of the organization. (Source: CMC Partnership Ltd. (1991)) - Problems decrease customer loyalty by 15 per cent to 30 per cent: - 50 per cent of individual consumers and 25 per cent of business customers who have problems never complain

Kizza, Ethical and Social Issues in the Information Age Essay Example for Free

Kizza, Ethical and Social Issues in the Information Age Essay CS 300 Week 2 Kizza Chapter 4 – Ethics and the Professions pages 65 to 96 Kizza, Ethical and Social Issues in the Information Age, 3rd. Edition, ISBN 978-1-84628-658-2. |Chapter Number and Title: 3 Ethics and the Professions | |Your Name: Brent Robles | |Todays date: 02NOV09 | |Briefly state the main idea of this chapter. | |A continued discussion of ethics in a professional atmosphere. | |2. List three important facts that the author uses to support the main idea: | |The four themes discussed are evolution of professions, the making of an ethical professional, and the professional decisions making process, | |and professionalism and ethical responsibilities. | |3. What information or ideas discussed in this chapter are also discussed in readings from DePalma? List the Unit and Title(s) of the reading:| |De Palma Reading #10 – Dilberts of the World, Unite! | |This article discusses how fast the white collar sector is growing and some of the issues involved. Microsoft is discussed in great detail on | |the treatment of their contracted employees. When it came to wages they were considered to be high-level computer professionals, thus not | |entitled to overtime pay. When it came to benefits, they were treated as temps unworthy of healthcare  coverage and stock options. So some | |individuals got together and worked to organize the workers. The article also talks about Microsoft hiring immigrant workers in the same | |positions as Americans and paying them considerably less. The unions worked with congress to oppose Bill Gates request for immigrant visas to | |be extended. There will always be a fight with these companies when trying to keep them hiring Americans. They are just trying to ensure that | |they can maximize profits. I chose this article because it discusses morals in hiring and paying white collar workers. I believe that it had | |ethical issues when dealing with professional issues like equal pay and benefits for immigrants. | |4. List and briefly discuss one of the questions at the end of the chapter. | |Are whistle blowers saints or blackmailers? I think that society has turned a saint into a blackmailer. By this I mean because of the fear of | |reprisal a whistle blower has to keep his mouth shut. But when he doesn’t he is considered to be a disgruntled employee and is trying to | |blackmail his supervision. It is hard to get issue resolved when dealing with a uncooperative management team, that is why employees have | |rights and protections, however there are only a few companies that protect the whistle blower, that is why when the whistle is blown the | |individual is considered to be a problem worker. | |5. List any examples of bias or faulty reasoning that you found in the chapter: Section 4.4.3 discusses guilt and making ethical decisions. | |On page 87 he explains actions that people experiencing guilt will go through. I think that this is a biased or faulty reasoning because not | |everyone goes through this process. I know that this article is a generalization, but there are people in society that make their decisions | |and move on with no remorse or guilt. The statement that guilt causes decision makers to agonize over decisions I think is only true for a | |select few individuals. Those individuals that are affected have to have some integrity and solid values. | |6. List any new terms/concepts that were discussed in the article, and write a short definition: | |Utilitarian – where decisions are made solely on the basis of their intended outcomes or consequences. | |Rights – where decisions are made based on the set of liberties the society enforces such as the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights. | |Justice – which decisions are made so that they are fair, impartial, and equitable to all. |

Ghost Light :: essays research papers

Ghost light refers to the superstition that one small bulb should always be left on so that no theater is ever totally dark--and thus vulnerable to "ghosts." A reader of Frank Rich's memoir Ghost Light is likely to conclude, however, that the title refers to the author's attempt to exorcise his miserable childhood. The son of Frank Rich Sr., whose family had been in the shoe business in Washington since the Civil War, and Helene Rich, a teacher, was born in 1949. Members of the family led seemingly ordinary lives in Somerset, Md. There, according to Rich, all the houses looked alike, dads went to work, moms stayed home and television perpetuated the myth that all families were happy. While he was in grade school, Rich's parents split up, making him the first kid on the block to bear the stigma of coming from "a broken home." Both parents subsequently remarried, and, in a telling detail, neither Rich nor his younger sister, Polly, was invited to either parent's second wedding. Rich is venomous on the subject of his stepfather--a crude and violent man with a vicious temper--but acknowledges that thanks to his affluence the family went to the theater often. The protagonist in Rich's life is his mother (described as a Judy Holliday, not physically but emotionally); her death was tragic. The driver of the car in which she was killed was Rich's much-loathed stepfather. Rich, writes freely of having been a lousy athlete, an insomniac and a loner. What pleasures he had in childhood came from theater--listening to recordings of musicals ("South Pacific," "The Most Happy Fella" and, while in bed with measles, "Peter Pan") and reenacting shows in the miniature theaters he created out of shoe boxes from his father's shop. For lighting, a desk lamp was put into service; pillowcases became curtains. He saved playbills (even ones found in trash cans for shows he had not seen), analyzed album covers and memorized lyrics. For his third-grade talent show, Rich sang "You Gotta Have Heart." Educated in public schools, where he claims classes were undemanding, Rich was blessed with teachers, librarians and friends who abetted his passion for theater, for reading and for writing. At the age of 8, he published a neighborhood bulletin that announced the arrival of babies, puppies and new cars. He also wrote a "book" titled "A World All My Own," about a boy who lived in a big box.

Career and Life Development in Erin Brockovich

The movie Erin Brockovich (2000) is a perfect illustration of the life-long and continuous development of every individual and the surprising ability with which a woman confronted by social and familial constraints is able to build her agency to be relevant to society.The film, directed by Steven Soderbergh, stars Julia Roberts in the lead role as Erin Brockovich and was based on the real life story of Erin Brockovich and her leadership in the Hinkley town’s fight against the water polluting activities of the energy giant Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG & E).More importantly, the film reveals the tremendous capacity of human beings to rise above their individual and personal hardships and pursue causes that often seem impossible or even unattainable.At first, Brockovich’s narrative is one that seems to be predetermined. Twice divorced and left to fend for her self and three young children, Erin appears to be in a disparate situation as her career prospects are cons trained by single motherhood and unemployment.Things go even worse when she figures in a car accident and her lawyer, Edward Masry, fails to land her a settlement for a personal injury suit. Thus, Erin is portrayed to be a victim of unfortunate events beyond her control and which have often left her helpless to change the course of her life.Erin’s identity is therefore established as a single mother and a woman whose experiences of failed marriage, unemployment, and unfortunate accident define the unconventional ways with which she copes with her difficulties.On the other hand, it is these clearly through these experiences that Erin’s individual capacities are honed and strengthened, reflecting Erikson & Erikson’s (1996) belief that encounters with periodic crises enable individuals to build up their resources for resolving problems. In Erin’s case, the absence of prospects forced her to ask for assistance from her lawyer by hiring her at his law firm.Thi s action would later prove to be both an opportunity and a challenge for her and a turning point in her career as she stumbles upon intriguing medical records of the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG & E) placed in the real estate files.Her later decision to continue investigating the connection between real estate and the energy giant’s medical records and to be involved in the prosecution of the PG & E after she discovers that it has been dumping toxic waste that threatens the water supply and health of the town of Hinkley represent a major shift in Erin’s narrative and in turn, her identity, from the disparate single mother to an individual concerned with social and ethical issues.Thus, Erin’s involvement with the case represents another important development in her life, one that could possibly result in gains or in losses for herself and the community she chose to be identified with. (Baltes, 1987; Elder, 1998)In retrospect, Erin’s unlikely triump h over an influential and moneyed adversary is the outcome of her individual persistence and strong sense of ethics and responsibility as well as the availability of social support that enables her to pursue her own development despite the painful reality of previous failures and frustrations and the presence of constraints.It is in this aspect that Erin’s story resonates with the lived realities and experiences of its audience, especially in terms of fulfilling their need for development and coming to terms with changes in career, relationships, and life in its entirety, as it shows that learning and human development does not stop with divorce, single motherhood, or failure. On the other hand, they represent new opportunities and challenges with which individuals can draw meaningful lessons to grow from.Works Cited:Baltes, P. G. (1987) Theoretical Propositions of Life-Span Developmental Psychology. Developmental Psychology, 23: 611-626.Elder, G. H. (1998) â€Å"The Life Co urse and Human Development,† Handbook of Child Psychology, William Damon (Ed), 5th Ed. New York: Wiley, Volume I, 939-991.Erikson, Erik & Erikson, Joan (1996) The Life Cycle Completed. New York: W.W. Norton.Soderbergh, S. (2000). Erin Brockovich. United States.

Raw rubber from Malaysia is delivered to the factory in ‘bales’

During the time the way squash balls manufactured has developed into a highly sophisticated process. Here is investigated how balls are made. To begin with, raw rubber from Malaysia is delivered to the factory in ‘bales’ of about 25kg – sufficient to make about 1,200 balls. In its natural state rubber is very stiff and difficult to work, so it is first ‘masticated’ to a softer consistency.A variety of natural and synthetic materials and powders are then mixed with the rubber to give it the required combination of strength, resilience, and colour as well as to enable it to cure (or ‘vulcanise’) later in the process. The manufacturer’s ‘recipe’ is a no less closely guarded secret than that of Coca Cola, and different combinations of ingredients (as many as 15 are used, including polymers, fillers, vulcanising agents, processing aids, and reinforcing materials) produce fast (blue dot), medium (red dot), slow (white dot), and super slow (yellow dot) balls.The current WSF Specification for the Standard Yellow Dot Championship Squash Ball determines the permitted diameter, weight, stiffness, seam strength and rebound resilience of the championship ball. No specifications are set for other types of ball, â€Å"which may be used by players of greater of lesser ability or in court conditions which are hotter or colder than those used to determine the yellow dot specification†. (http://www. squashplayer. co. uk) Thus, we don’t have any exact data (parameters) for red and blue balls.We only can use data available for yellow ball and modify the possible parameters that red and blue balls may have. Out of all specifications of a ball we are interested in its weight and rebound resilience. Rebound resilience is a measurement of the height a ball bounces off a hard surface. The data given in the table above mean that if one drops ball from a height of 100 centimetres (1 meter) onto a concrete floo r then at 23oC the yellow balls must rebound at 12 centimetres; at 45oC between 26 and 33 centimetres.At 23oC the red ball must rebounds at 15 centimetres; at 45oC between 33 and 36 centimetres. At 23oC the blue ball must rebound at 17 centimetres; at 45oC between 36 and 38 centimetres. For our study we will take that if one drops ball from a height of 1 meter, then at 23oC the red ball must rebound at 15 centimeters; at 45oC – at 34. 5 centimeters. at 23oC the blue ball must rebound at 17 centimeters; at 45oC – at 37 centimeters.

Different Developments in the British Sociology of Education

Different Developments in the British Sociology of Education Up until recently, education was only accessible to only those who could afford it: The upper middle class and some few people from the middle class group. As it is currently evident, education stands out as one among the key commodities that every person must possess to cope with the ever-changing world.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Different Developments in the British Sociology of Education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As a result and especially in Britain, there are remarkable developments that are evident in the British sociology of education, as this essay will reveal. There is little doubt that being educated is a great life changing practice. Education as a social institution changes the society. This report will examine the structuralist, interactionist, and postmodernism perspectives of education in Britain (Bank 2011). This will help to explore the purpose of formal education in the contemporary Bri tish society. An essential legislation with regard to the education policy in the United Kingdom is the 1870 Education Act (Haralambos, Holborn 2000). This act is the first official legislation that specifically addressed the British education policy. More importantly, this law portrays the commitment of the government to education nationwide (Haralambos, Holborn 2000). This legislation allowed voluntary schools to continue unaffected. However, it established an education system of management, School Boards, which constructed schools and managed them in places that they were needed (Haralambos, Holborn 2000). The role of introducing free compulsory education was to prevent child labour, to ensure that all Britons had the basic education, to ensure sustainability of the British workforce, and for Britain to continue leading in development issues. Legislations that govern education have continued to change to manage education policies. In 1918, they placed the management of seconda ry education under the Fisher Education Act.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This act made school attendance compulsory for children up to the age of 14 years (Haralambos, Holborn 2000). The age to leave school went up to 15 years in 1947. In 1972, it went to 16 years. Expansion of schools to ensure more skilled workforce accompanied these changes. In this essay, I give special focus on two important things. The first is the role of education in the United Kingdom. There are several points of view when addressing the functions of education in any society and its implications. Second, will be the question as to why it happens that some social groups seem to be enjoying more education success in relation to others (Haralambos, Holborn 2000). Going back to the functionalist perspective, there are two issues that the theory seeks to address. First, it addresses the functions o f education in the society. Putting into consideration the functionalist perspective of need of the social system, the issue leads to the analysis of the contributions that education has made in creation of value and social harmony (Haralambos, Holborn 2000, p. 726). Second, the functional relationships that education has with other social systems. This results in assessment of the connection between the economic system and education, and contemplation of how these relationship, help in integration of the society as a whole (Haralambos, Holborn 2000). In the beginning of the 20th century, schools grew to become major societal institutions. Sociologists since then focused incessant, concerted effort towards comprehension of the structure and the impact this had on society (Arum, et al. 2010). Sociologists of the 21st century, Max Weber, John Meyer, James Coleman, and Pierre Bourdieu among others have developed theoretical frameworks for education. Whereas some researchers concentra ted on economic aspects of education, others concentrated on the associated issues of socialization. For studies in sociology of education, these differences are very important. Education is a very important social investment. It has a very huge role in the society. Whether, a person looks at it pessimistically or optimistically, there is a range of perspectives that are important for understanding for instance, structuralism, post-modern and interractionism. These perspectives are important in defining the function of formal education in contemporary British society.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Different Developments in the British Sociology of Education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Structuralist theory has three perspectives: the functionalist, feminism, and Marxism. Though functionalist theory application has greatly reduced sociological importance in Britain, for over two decades, it had already made re markable influence on Britain’s educational policy. Thus, it played an important role of shaping the current education system and this should not be underestimated. The design of the British education teaches competition, consensus and success based on merit (Bradley, et al. 2001). From the functionalist perspective, there are two important aspects in the role of education namely institutional relationship and subsequent connection to the larger society. In this regard, therefore, emphasis is on the way education connects outer institutions like workplaces. As intricate as the modern social system, the education system is a link between institutions in a number of ways (Bradley, et al. 2001). Firstly, at institutional level, the systems must have human resource management strategies for doctors, managers, police, and accountants among other professionals. It would make no sense if the system produces many employees yet the government cannot find demand for them (Bradley, et a l. 2001). Secondly, on the individual level, education systems offer an agency of secondary socialization. Secondary socialization -this describes a process of emancipating students from primary attachment to their families to workplace roles. This concept of education helps in connecting childhood to adulthood. Schools offer a range of secondary socialization opportunities, abilities and means (Bradley, et al. 2001). When people grow up, most of their relationships take the form of ‘give and take’ where they form allies based on what they can do for them in return for some other favours. This relationship is not similar to affective association between people in close friendship. Meritocracy – this concept is a reflection of reward of ideas like jobs, better pay and high social status earned because of efforts and capabilities (Dewey 1997). Efforts and capabilities include hard work in school and acquired academic credentials instead of the allotted based on con nection and family links.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Merit based education system are also naturally competitive since different degrees of reward for different heights of academic attainment makes students want to continually prove themselves for the reward (Bourdieu 1986). In the contemporary Britain system of education, like rewards relating to academic qualifications (for instance, A-levels and GCSE) in turn allow students to be eligible for entry into certain job types. Meritocracy functions well when equality of opportunity prevails. This means that no disadvantaged parties face discrimination or the depriving of their opportunity to express their worth (Bourdieu 1986). Differential rewards for different levels of achievement are reasonable as long as the competition offers equal access to opportunities. Functionalist view also allows children to learn the acceptable and unacceptable conduct in the society. Students hence gain self-control. This includes deferred gratification (opposite of immediate reward) as well as internaliz ation of certain societal values and norms (Powers, Wojtkiewicz 2004). Besides secondary socialization, there is coordination of human resources, which connect to the larger society, and it includes things that prepare students for different future careers and social differentiation since different individuals are good at difference roles in the society (Powers, Wojtkiewicz 2004). The post-structuralism is not easy to characterise since it is very diverse. Most of its representations do not take the form that allows characterization of any kind (Cole 2008). The post-structuralism and post-modernism have a wider array of interpretations (Bank 2011). The post structural views on the United Kingdom’s education are harder to categorise as well (Bank 2011). Post-structuralism describes cultural changes that happen in the modern world (Cole 2008). Post modernist views do not have a specified perception as such on the part of function of education since that would mean a question of right or wrong. That might spark competition between two ideologies and tension. Modern institutions like schools fall under this theory especially those that developed out of the industrial revolution and emergence of the contemporary society (Cole 2008). As a result, they exist for certain causes all of which Foucault describes as being because of power. The power doctrine in this context relates to how modern Britain attempts to exert social control by use of educational institutions. The post-modernism aspect of this theory is that there is â€Å"a resistance and decentralization attitudes of students and educators to the tendency of contemporary education system to centralize issues† (Bank 2011, p. 78). The national curriculum is an example of the means the state used to take control by setting out what is worth teaching in schools. The interpretivist theory notes that, for one to comprehend the phenomenon, the entire system must be analysed. From this viewpoint, one can declare interperetivism better than positivism as it targets understanding as a whole, as Neill points out (Neill 2006). In order to understand the problems in the education system, one can only understand the real problems when we address the entire education system. This has seen the theory address issues ranging from curriculum, function of education, educators, students, and government participation. This theory offers answers to anything that education should have critically addressed (Tozer, Violas Senese 2002). Marxist perspective has not been dominant in the Britain’s government policies – this barely surprises because Britain has been critical of capitalist societies. Expanding further the Marxist perspective for the function of education in the capitalist society identifies several ideas (Rikowski 1999). Althusser (1971) did not simply address ‘cultural reproduction’ in the society and how it related to the problem of societies replacing its elf over time (transfer of cultural values to the next generation) rather, he also discussed how the dominant social class managed to stay in control by reproducing its social and political power (Althusser 1971). He argues that one of the most efficient ways of controlling is through education. Thus, education is an instrument of class suppression and domination. He however included other institutions like media and religion to seem fair. Today, the ruling class limit access to education by restricting or regulating the subjects that are included in the curriculum (Taylor, Smithers 2005). The higher students advance in education, the wider the access to knowledge base (Apple 1995). This helps to restrict students’ ambitions and expectations. The fact that education has a structure that appears in a way that it has different levels of qualifications facilitates restriction. In many cases, in the British curriculum, students have to prove their capabilities to handle the chal lenges of the next step in their education through sitting for transitional examinations. These examinations act as selection instruments that pick only those capable of making it to the next level. According to the Marxists, this is entirely in place strategically as a plot to justify the oppression that befalls those unable to proceed further in their studies as those that the system favours use them as menial labourers. In addition, there is theory versus practical knowledge. Schools help to institute social control where students learn respect for authorities. The attainment of commoditization of education makes it more expansive as it is possible to custom it to some level (Apple 1995). By having examinations as part of education, schooling receives monetary value. Hence, there is the possibility of selling education. With the contemporary system of education in Britain favouring commercialized education, capitalists are taking advantage of this scenario to oppress the masses t hat are in search of skills to better their situations. With the school owners being the owners of the means of production, the educational facility, rather than serving its function of freeing the people from ignorance further, oppresses people by taking all that they had. Cultural reproduction is a concept based on secondary socialization but with a new look. Marxists like Althusser argue that, the reproduction of capitalism occurs via education to next generations. The reason is that future generations have to acquire life skills to enable them to take up positions in the workforce (Althusser 1971). The new look here is that schools cannot just select, allot and differentiate students for these roles even through public examination is in the interest of the society. This puts education on the spot as not being meritocratic (Marx 1977). The role of education is to facilitate children from powerful class to attain education level that would allow them to work as professionals. The trick here is â€Å"to educate many children ‘just enough’ to qualify as useful worker and few, ‘more than enough’ to qualify for high-powered jobs† (Bourdieu, 1977, p.85). Cultural reproduction theory explains why there is relatively low to lack of mobility at the lower-class levels in the British society. Education in this case, therefore, only serves in the interest of the ruling class in that only the children from the ruling classes receive the best form of education that would enable them to rule over the others in the lower social classes. With the current education systems in Britain only granting free education on the lower levels of the system and then very expensive education in the higher levels, according to the Marxists, the system is destined to fail just as the capitalist rule in the world. Bowles and Gintis (2002) and Willis (2003) cite cultural reproduction as the ideology leading to elite self-recruitment making the top players to close mobility for the lower class. Though the main focus of the feminist educational research has not changed significantly over the past two decades, its emphasis has slightly shifted from the vague explanations as to why girls’ performance is poor compared to boys’ (reason being they don’t anymore) to explanations of how girls cope with school and workplace obstacle -mainly prejudice based on gender (Bourdieu 1977). This subtle shift should not imply that historically feminist theory’s impact on Britain’s education was insignificant. Its study remains relevant for explaining the differences in higher education choice of courses and career choices too (Blanden, Machin 2004). Feminist impact on modern British education is on socialization, hidden curriculum and the societal norms. Different socialization experiences and subsequent varied social expectation between male and females, direct them to different gender identities and role performance. The education system in the past contributed to the way women perceived their primary role in the family as wives and mothers. Despite the seemingly widened female horizons, feminist argue the traditional mindsets about masculinity and femininity still affects family and work relationships (McKenzie 1997). Feminist perspective is reflected in sociology of education in two ways – work and gender stereotypes. There is a consistent sidelining of women at the work place regardless of their academic credentials. Treneman (1998) has shown that statistical under-performance in schools does not match the statistical over-achievement of men at workplaces. The differences are evident in their earnings. In Britain, it remains illegal to pay women and men different wages for the same job or comparable jobs (Treneman 1998). This was effective following the passing of the equal pay act of 1970. However, women still earn averagely 17.2% less per hour, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (20 06) revealed. Women graduates get less payments right from the very beginning when they join employment (McKenzie 1997). Gender stereotyping, on the other hand, stands out in career aspirations from school. Warrington and Younger (2000, p.495) noted men and women chose careers based on stereotypes for or against them. Women tended to focus on secretarial jobs, caregivers, nursing, and hairdressing, men in the other hand tended to pursue plumbing, accounting etc (Powers, Wojtkiewicz, 2004). Gordon (1996) says that teachers in Britain focused more attention on boys as they seemed interesting to teach, though they frequently praised girls for their efforts. The equal opportunities Commission (2007) argue that girls’ education credentials do not necessarily help them to attain well-paying jobs. Roger and Duffield have identified several causes of the tendency to avoid sciences among girls. Primary socialization ingrains certain gender identity concepts in boys and girls (Roger Duffield, 2000). Reay (2001) showed a variety of female identities that developed from the primary classroom. The most interesting is that girls wanted to be like boys. In primary, most teachers are female, about 90% (Reay 2001). In the early childhood education level, for instance, it has been on the record that more women teach at the preparatory schools than men have. One can attribute this to the stereotypes on women as being better placed to watch children as they grow than men. They exemplify the role model concept, which connects gender, and work hence building this notion in students (Feinstein, 2003). Besides, career advisers from early ages have a propensity of reinforcing traditional men/women roles and separation of tasks (Roger Duffield, 2000). Lauder et al. (2009) looks through the history of British sociology of education since 1950s to the current system. They explain how the main audience for research has changed from the policy creators in 1970s to teachers in tod ay’s system, Shain and Ozga share similar sentiments. They argue that, â€Å"the close association with teachers and education was an important factor in causing a shift of the sociology of education from the mainstream sociology† (2001, p. 110). This was part of the paradigm shift from mere tutoring to training – this meant that sociologists of education in effect lost most of their followers and audience. As Shain, and Ozga (2001, p.114) point out, â€Å"A dramatic cultural turn from the old socialization theories to the more flexible accounts of identity, together with the shift towards new policies in 1990s and 2000s shows that whereas the concept of social justice remained, there was no central audience for the sociology of education†. Lauder et al (2009, p.580) argues that the severe nature of the sociology of education made the discipline unpleasant. This also means it was challenging to the policy makers and educators. A wider, more applicable, in terdisciplinary, and pedagogically determined faculty of education studies was developed to realise the need of practice and policy (James 2010). These primarily targeted problem solving instead of criticising the systems. This was characteristic of previous theories and an inspiration for evidence based practice regulation (James 2010 Shain, Ozga 2001). Whereas the traditional sociology of education in Britain has successfully allowed incorporation of its concepts in other fields, its current availability to maintain dialogue with such workers and decision makers is greatly compromised (James, 2010). Most researches in sociology of education focus on explaining why some social groups tend to attain higher education more easily than others do (Blanden, Machin, 2004). Experts measure education level achievement in terms of academic qualifications. More attention is placed on the differences existing between the social classes (high, middle and lower), on the gender (boys and girls) and sometimes ethnic groups. Attempts to explain this uses the interactionist concept. The differential achievements studied so far show that factors that the students have no control over affect their progress in education, for instance, social background and intelligence (Machin, Vignoles 2004). However, the most obvious place where one can find explanations in the education system itself. The previous approaches explaining differences in performance did not address schooling itself. The scholars then partially assumed that schools played a crucial role in the determination of educational success or failure. Families that could afford paying for education spent large amounts of money paying for their children’s education in fee-paying institutions (Machin, Vignoles 2004). The main reason for parents to do this was that they believed that such schools as opposed to free public school offered the best education hence an advantage to their children. This, however, never hap pened as hoped. Despite these schools, social class inequality remains this has shifted focus on the studying of the differential treatment of students even when they attend same schools (Blanden, Machin 2004). For Marxists, British education system is an ideological instrument of the government (Rikowski 1999). That means education serves in disseminating the upper class or ruling class ideologies. Education creates myths and its existence promotes incongruous ideas. This is similar to the arguments presented by Louis Althusser, one of the staunch French Marxists (Althusser 1971). Accordingly, Althusser (1971) claims that, no class can be able to stay in power forever exclusively using threats. Therefore, ideology offers the most efficient tool for attaining long-term control. Educational facilities such as schools serve as places to teach ideologies that aim at brainwashing the students and justifying the oppressive systems. In these institutions, students learn taught never to q uestion the authorities even when the decisions of such authorities are not in their favour. Marxists are of the believe that educational system and facilities are only important when they are involved in highlighting the masses and giving them the necessary knowledge of their oppressed conditions and the hope that one day they will overcome the oppression. When the state is able to control what people think, it can then control what they do, hence making this the downright type of control. Education systems have taken over religion as the major agent of disseminating ideologies, which is a prerequisite for maintaining capitalist economic structure (Althusser 1971). It is evident that the higher your family’s social class, the higher you would probably attain education qualification and the longer you stay in school (Willis 1977). Class still determined where one ended up in most of the cases. The education system propagates the concept, nonetheless, that success is mainly du e to hard work and intelligence (White 1990). According to people like Althusser who upheld the Marxist view of education, education systems in this way deprive the students of the knowledge that they can still succeed even in the absence of the education offered in classroom. This is a fallacy according to Althusser (1971), as it aims at killing the hopes to succeed for the students who are naturally lazy or not intelligent. This targets making them to be quiet observers of their destiny, as the society turns against them and starts oppressing them. Status attainment studies in general supports the individual and personal collective benefits when individuals attain higher educational levels (Dale 2009). From the policy point of view, the social challenge or social concern is expansion of the educational opportunities and promotion of greater efficiency in schools and universities. Opponents of the status attainment paradigm nonetheless dispute the reliability and legitimacy of scho ols as mechanism of dissemination of social resource and promotion of socio-economic welfare, at least as they are currently operating. Even though sociologists continue to debate the purpose and function of education, most agree that education gives students the qualifications and opportunities for survival in the job market (Dale 2009). Addressing policies pertaining to school choices, curriculum and finance is important. Britain is said to be a capitalist society therefore it justifies social inequality especially wealth, opportunity to access resources and power (Blanden, Machin 2004). If ever a person questions these inequalities, as well as the way people manifest them, then that could result in erosion and replacement of the capitalist economies. One can prevent such a situation by promoting the ideology that inequalities are acceptable. Education system in the UK makes inequality more socially right by spreading the myth that education provided equal opportunity to everyone (Blanden, Machin, 2004). Is there any response from the British government? Today in Britain, all children are entitled to state education. The argument is therefore that, those who attain the best qualifications qualify for top jobs and that they deserve success because they are brilliant and more hardworking than classmates who did not perform as well as they did (White 1990). Education fosters this viewpoint leading people to think that they fall along such classes simply because they exist. Bowles and Gintis (2002) identify that chances of educational prowess were closely linked to the class the family student comes from. Children from rich families stayed longer in schools and performed better. The evidence that educational qualification is proportional to intelligence is at stake with such perceptions. Research truly shows that students with higher IQs performed better in relation to those with average IQs. Rich families can also afford other educational resources for their children like textbooks, which have been growing very expensive each day (Machin, Vignoles 2004). Students can be able to access a computer and internet and a printer, which could play a big role in how they handle their homework and their knowledge base as well as enhance creativity. Despite what the teacher may say, the style of presenting school assignments is important just as the content of the assignments (Machin, Vignoles 2004). According to Bowles Gintis (2002), the relationship between intelligence and academic achievement is not a casual one. Intelligence does not necessarily determine academic prowess Bowles and Gintis (2002). Education ideology promotes specific values that function to ensure the continuation of capitalism. The ideology therein consists, not only of certain distorted beliefs, but also promotes functions, which work to preserve the status quo. One of these values prevalent in Britain is competition (Bradley, et al., 1997). Education offers a platform f or competing with educators as judges. These competitions have also incorporated sports where students participate in sports like rugby, and football (Bradley, et al., 1997). In any case, where there are two opposing ideas, there is also bound to be winners and losers. This happens because each side would try to outsmart the opponent. The UK’s education also fosters another ideology, which is socialization as mentioned in preceding paragraphs. Much of what people know came from education in schools and colleges. However, only certain things that the state wants students to know are included in the curriculum. Therefore, people should not see it as coming from teachers as reactionary outcomes because they are middle class (Carchedi 1975) even though most are, but because they teach a curriculum designed by the government. The government dictates teaching. Therefore, even though teachers may which to teach socialism, anarchy, and negative consequences of free enterprise structu res, they cannot risk it (Machin, Vignoles 2004). In terms of the material wealth, the effect on education is profound and it evidently plays a crucial role in education prowess. A rich parent can afford to take his/her children to good fee-paying schools despite how undeserving the children maybe. With good schools, they have an assurance of academic prowess (Machin, Vignoles 2004). It is rumoured that in Britain, the ‘Toffs’ normally have their examinations marked more leniently that their counterparts from state schools. Whether true or false, the standards of teaching are certainly higher in the public schools compared to the poorly financed comprehensive schools with demoralized staff (Machin, Vignoles 2004). Even in cases where parents cannot fully afford to pay for their children’s education in public schools, they can hire private tutors to subsidize for the comprehensive education. When this tuition took place with teacher paying close attention to th e students and over a long period, it brings out better results of academic success. One of the areas that concerned the policymakers in the UK was the general lack of basic skills among its workforce, particularly younger employees. The government responded to this problem by the introduction of standardized national curriculum for all students between ages 7 and 16 years (Provenzo, 2002, p.65). This was set to make sure that the students had minimum depth and breadth of the curriculum. In the 1990s, there was the introduction of another policy to ensure students were very qualified in terms of basic skills. This policy, referred to as numeracy and literacy policy, described how the primary school teachers should teach (National Literacy Trust 2004). It stipulated a minimum of one hour every day to be set for numeracy and literacy. The evidence of these policy reforms is not ample. The national evaluation of the national curriculum has been impossible. In terms of literacy, the stu dents graduating since then have improved reading ability and English prowess (Ryan, Bohlin 1999). The other important policy relies on the relatively small number of students persisting in education past 16 years and therefore less number of students graduating from second and third levels compared to other developed countries. Britain introduced two educational policies to increase the number students participating in post compulsory education (Clark, et al., 2005). The first policy was Vocational qualifications for entry job for new employees designed based on national vocational qualification. The second policy for this was maintenance allowance paid to students aged 16 to 19 (Dixit 2002) from disadvantaged background to encourage their continued participation in fulltime education (Clark, et al., 2005). Another important policy subjected to reform is higher education. Traditionally, British higher education had been a preserve for few people in the higher social class (Blanden , Machin 2004). Even though enrolment in higher education has increased considerably over the past few years, the low class is still under-represented, as their enrolment remains low. The policy seeks to expand the higher education opportunities further to increase access to encompass the previously under-represented social classes (Blanden, Machin 2004). Durkheim’s theories have had a critical impact on the modern sociology and education. Durkheim’s viewpoint has been that the contemporary schools have placed attention on building individuals and less attention on the roles and responsibilities that these individuals should perform towards group life (Durkheim, Emirbaye, 2003). In order to attain dignity, an individual has to attain a sense of competence, a sense of contributing to something and of getting appreciation from the society where he/she belongs. There needs to be changes in curriculum that will address these feelings. Critics have declared Durkheim†™s views as far from clear that Modern education in Britain has been effective in transmitting shared values, promoting personal discipline, and reinforcing social solidarity (Durkheim, Emirbaye 2003). Politically, the social gap that the education in Britain has not been able to bridge has received the policy concern from all the three major political parties. All these parties have been involved in the important discussions as to whether the education system as it is has played any significant role in the effort to bridge the social gap or it has simply been an impediment to social mobility and meritocracy(Chevalier Dolton 2005). There are several discoveries made though about the reasons why the education system has failed the test of time in ensuring greater engagement in education from the working class. These include the realization that the curriculum has been enforced to the people in what is called the top- down approach whereby no sufficient research was conducted to i dentify the most felt needs of the people that could possibly be addressed by the system of education (Apple, 1995). There are differing contexts that require unique treatment as realized through research conducted by several interested parties in the field. Because of this, most political debates that handled the topic of the effectiveness of the education system in Britain lie on the need to have a system that uniquely encourages the participation of students and eventually helps them in the process or at the end of the day (Shilling 1993). Gillborn and Mirza (2000) argue that outcomes of many research studies conducted on this areas clearly point on the fact that academic prowess among British children is majorly connected to the occupations, wealth and influence of the parents. This impacts to slowed class mobility as it is hard for students from the working class to compete with others on a level ground, as they are disadvantaged. According to the National Literacy Trust (2004) , in some areas of Britain that are termed as disadvantaged, up to 50% of children reach the school going years without the required and necessary communication and language skills. The Education secretary in a recent remark that triggered a lot of criticism directed to him, is recorded as saying to a Commons education committee that kids from rich families who are considerably thicker tend to perform much better that others from the poor families who are clever even before they attain the school going age. Though most of those criticizing his remarks termed the language as unprofessionally blunt and emotive, there is indispensable truth in his words as far as the connection between poverty and underperformance is concerned. Social democrats, for instance, are convinced that it is only through the intervention of the government that education will be of benefit to everyone. According to Crozier (2000), they constantly push the government to exercise control over the free market that result to inequalities in the education sector. They in this manner totally disagree with their counterparts the functionalists who are of the argument that the education system in place in Britain encourages the genuine spirit of equal opportunity. As Gillborn and Mirza (2000) point out, â€Å" To the social democrat, education in this sense fails to offer equal opportunities to the children from the lower social classes as compared to those in the upper social classes†. Social democratic theorists argue that, if run properly, the education systems can, at the end of the day, produce better results as far as achieving social equality is concerned. Although the educational success in Britain majorly depends upon the social class background of the students, it cannot attain social mobility at any degree according to the Labour party politician Antony Crosland (Crozier, 2000). Education is supposed to ensure that the society is more meritocratic and therefore enable one to att ain his potential and eventually contribute to the overall development of the society. However, this is not the case in British education as the system is constantly shifting from the intentions that led to its development (Archer, 2007). The social democrats are in this view also opposed to the functionalists who are very contented that the education system in place in Britain is serving its functions. These arguments constantly spark open-ended discussions in the political arena as far as the education of the British population is concerned. Nonetheless, the stance of the social democrats and the theorists who support these arguments does not escape criticism based on the recorded evidence that proves that the education system is in a way working towards the increase in equal opportunities and social mobility. One might ask, is there anything to boast about concerning the education system in Britain? Whether or not the education system in Britain and its positive developments over time have achieved anything in contributing to the growth of the economy has been a discussion in the political field since the days of the labour prime minister; James Callaghan in 1976. In his speech at Ruskin College that particular year, Callaghan pointed out that the education system was failing in that it did not meet Britain’s’ industry needs. The criticism on the effectiveness of education continued further with the election into office of Margaret Thatcher in 1979. This made the debate even more heated as the conservative right thinkers were of the opinion that the efforts to enforce equality of opportunity and also the liberal ideals in the existing education system was a blow to the education sector since they were degrading its value and standards (Bourdieu, 1977). These efforts in their view were holding back the most talented in an effort to provide a basis of equality, which was a blow to the standards of education in Britain. All the social education t heorists, as well as politicians, however, share a similar assumption in their arguments on the developments and effectiveness in the British education system that it should work to the benefit of the society as a whole (Gillborn Mirza, 2000). Despite the fact that some critique the manner the education policies are implemented, they all share the hope that the existing education system can in a way be modified to the greater good and to ensure the realization of a society determined by merit either inside or outside the class environment. The government and the different parties may have their differing opinions on the effectiveness of the education sector. By focusing on the function it plays on economic growth and its sustenance, they have to unite since the repercussions affect the nation equally without discriminating the rich or the poor (Apple, 1995). References Althusser, L., 1971. Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses in Louis Althusser Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press. Available at marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm. Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings., 2007. Gender Pay Gap Narrowest Since Records Began. Oxford: Office for National Statistics. Apple, M., 1995. Education and Power. London: Ark Paperbacks. Archer, L., 2007. Social justice in schools: Engaging with equality, in J. Dillon and M. Maguire (eds), Becoming a teacher: Issues in secondary teaching, Berkshire: Open University Press. Arum, R., Beattie, I., Ford, K., 2010. The Structure of Schooling: Readings in the Sociology of Education. New York: McGraw Hill. Bank, B., 2011. Gender and Higher Education. 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What’s the Good of Education? The Economics of Education in the United Kingdom. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Clark, D., Conlon, G., Galindo-Rueda, F., 2005. Post-Compulsory Education and Qualification Attainment. What’s The Good of Education? The Economics of Education. The U nited Kingdom: Princeton University Press. Cole, M., 2008. Marxism and EducationTheory: Origins and Issues. London: Routledge. Crozier, G., 2000. Parents and Schools: Partners or Protagonists? Stoke-on-Trent and  Britain. Britain: Stylus Publishing, Trentham Books. Dale, R., 2009. â€Å"Renewing or Rupturing the Sociology of Education?† British Journal of Sociology of Education, 30(3), pp. 379–387. Dewey, J., 1997. Experience and education. New York: Touchstone Books. Dixit, A., 2002. â€Å"Incentives and Organizations in the Public Sector†. Journal of Human Resources, 37(3), pp. 696-727. Durkheim, É. Emirbaye, M., 2003. Émile Durkheim: Sociologist of Modernity. Malde: Wiley Blackwell. Feinstein, L., 2003. â€Å"Inequality in the Early Cognitive Development of British Children in the 1970 Cohort†. Economica, 70(1), pp. 73-97. Gillborn, D., Mirza, H., 2000. Educational Inequality: Mapping race, class and gender, London: HMI. Haralambos, M Holb orn, H. 2000. Sociology. Perspectives and Perspectives. London: Collins Educational James, D., 2010. â€Å"Theory and Educational Research: Toward Critical Social Explanation†. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 31(2), pp. 243–248. Lauder, H., Brown, P., Halsey, A., 2009. â€Å"Sociology of Education: A Critical History and Prospects for the Future†. Oxford Review of Education, 35(5), pp. 569–585. Machin, S., Vignoles, A., 2004. â€Å"Educational Inequality: The Widening Socio-Economic Gap†. Fiscal Studies, 25(1), pp. 107-28. MacKenzie, J., 1997. Its A Mans World: Class And Gender In School Work Experience Programmes. Spotlight No. 60. Edinburgh: Scottish Council for Research in Education. Marx, K., 1977. 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Nietzsche, Marx, and Mastery: The Learning unto Death. In Apprenticeship, Towards a New Paradigm of Learning. London: Routledge. Roger, A., Duffield, J., 2 000. â€Å"Factors Underlying Persistent Gendered Option Choices in School Science and Technology in Scotland†. Gender and Education, 12(3), pp. 369-381. Ryan, K., Bohlin, K., 1999. Building Character in Schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Shain, F., Ozga, J., 2001. â€Å"Identity Crisis? Problems and Issues in the Sociology of Education†. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 22(1), pp. 109-120. Shilling, C., 1993. â€Å"The Demise of Sociology of Education in Britain? : Voicing Concerns: Sociological Perspectives on Contemporary Education Reforms by Madeleine Arnot Len Barton†. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 14(1), pp. 105-112. Taylor, M., Smithers, R., 2005. New Academy Schools Fuel Education Row. The Guardian. Available at guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,1562665,00.html . 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History of the Thermometer and Lord Kelvin

History of the Thermometer and Lord Kelvin Lord Kelvin invented the Kelvin Scale in 1848 used on thermometers. The Kelvin Scale measures the ultimate extremes of hot and cold. Kelvin developed the idea of absolute temperature, what is called the Second Law of Thermodynamics, and developed the dynamical theory of heat. In the 19th century, scientists were researching what was the lowest temperature possible. The Kelvin scale uses the same units as the Celcius scale, but it starts at ABSOLUTE ZERO, the temperature at which everything including air freezes solid. Absolute zero is O K, which is - 273 °C degrees Celsius. Lord Kelvin - Biography Sir William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs, Lord Kelvin of Scotland (1824 - 1907) studied at Cambridge University, was a champion rower, and later became a Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Glasgow. Among his other achievements was the 1852 discovery of the Joule-Thomson Effect of gasses and his work on the first transatlantic telegraph cable (for which he was knighted), and his inventing of the mirror galvanometer used in cable signaling, the siphon recorder, the mechanical tide predictor, an improved ships compass. Extracts from: Philosophical Magazine October 1848 Cambridge University Press, 1882 ...The characteristic property of the scale which I now propose is, that all degrees have the same value; that is, that a unit of heat descending from a body A at the temperature T ° of this scale, to a body B at the temperature (T-1) °, would give out the same mechanical effect, whatever be the number T. This may justly be termed an absolute scale since its characteristic is quite independent of the physical properties of any specific substance. To compare this scale with that of the air-thermometer, the values (according to the principle of estimation stated above) of degrees of the air-thermometer must be known. Now an expression, obtained by Carnot from the consideration of his ideal steam-engine, enables us to calculate these values when the latent heat of a given volume and the pressure of saturated vapor at any temperature are experimentally determined. The determination of these elements is the principal object of Regnaults great work, already referred to, but, at present, his researches are not complete. In the first part, which alone has been as yet published, the latent heats of a given weight, and the pressures of saturated vapour at all temperatures between 0 ° and 230 ° (Cent. of the air-thermometer), have been ascertained; but it would be necessary in addition to know the densities of saturated vapour at different temperatures, to enable us to determine the latent heat of a given volume at any temperature. M. Regnault announces his intention of instituting researches for this object; but till the results are made known, we have no way of completing the data necessary for the present problem, except by estimating the density of saturated vapour at any temperature (the corresponding pressure being known by Regnaults researches already published) according to the approximate laws of compressibility and expansion (the laws of Mariotte and Gay-Lussac, or Boyle and Dalton). Within the limits of natural temperature in ordinary climates, the density of saturated vapour is actually found by Regnault (Études Hydromà ©triques in the Annales de Chimie) to verify very closely these laws; and we have reasons to believe from experiments which have been made by Gay-Lussac and others, that as high as the temperature 100 ° there can be no considerable deviation; but our estimate of the density of saturated vapour, founded on these laws, may be very erroneous at such high temperatures at 230 °. Hence a completely satisfactory calculation of the proposed scale cannot be made till after the additional experimental data shall have been obtained; but with the data which we actually possess, we may make an approximate comparison of the new scale with that of the air-thermometer, which at least between 0 ° and 100 ° will be tolerably satisfactory. The labour of performing the necessary calculations for effecting a comparison of the proposed scale with that of the air-thermometer, between the limits of 0 ° and 230 ° of the latter, has been kindly undertaken by Mr. William Steele, lately of Glasgow College, now of St. Peters College, Cambridge. His results in tabulated forms were laid before the Society, with a diagram, in which the comparison between the two scales is represented graphically. In the first table, the amounts of mechanical effect due to the descent of a unit of heat through the successive degrees of the air-thermometer are exhibited. The unit of heat adopted is the quantity necessary to elevate the temperature of a kilogramme of water from 0 ° to 1 ° of the air-thermometer; and the unit of mechanical effect is a metre-kilogramme; that is, a kilogramme raised a metre high. In the second table, the temperatures according to the proposed scale, which correspond to the different degrees of the air-thermometer from 0 ° to 230 °, are exhibited. The arbitrary points which coincide on the two scales are 0 ° and 100 °. If we add together the first hundred numbers given in the first table, we find 135.7 for the amount of work due to a unit of heat descending from a body A at 100 ° to B at 0 °. Now 79 such units of heat would, according to Dr. Black (his result being very slightly corrected by Regnault), melt a kilogramme of ice. Hence if the heat necessary to melt a pound of ice be now taken as unity, and if a metre-pound be taken as the unit of mechanical effect, the amount of work to be obtained by the descent of a unit of heat from 100 ° to 0 ° is 79x135.7, or 10,700 nearly. This is the same as 35,100 foot-pounds, which is a little more than the work of a one-horse-power engine (33,000 foot pounds) in a minute; and consequently, if we had a steam-engine working with perfect economy at one-horse-power, the boiler being at the temperature 100 °, and the condenser kept at 0 ° by a constant supply of ice, rather less than a pound of ice would be melted in a minute.